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Big data, Intelligence Artificielle, et Algorithmes d'Apprentissage Automatique: Une Analyse Descriptive des Menaces Numériques à l'ère Post-Vérité

Year 2019, Issue: 31, 91 - 110, 28.12.2019
https://doi.org/10.16878/gsuilet.626260

Abstract










L’utilisation de big data a t-il tout changé concernant
la circulation de l'information? Nos données numériques ont été conservées dans
un grand entrepôt que nous avons nommé ‘big data’. Tout ce que nous faisons
dans la vie virtuelle laisse une empreinte numérique et grâce aux algorithmes
d’apprentissage automatique; dans notre fils d'actualités, nous sommes
principalement confrontés par des contenus similaires aux sujets que nous
avions précédemment recherchés. Big data sont essentiellement utilisées pour manipuler
les internautes pour acheter de nouveaux produits, visiter de nouveaux
endroits, lire de nouveaux livres, etc. Cependant, comme il est apparu en 2016,
avec Le Scandale Cambridge Analytica de Facebook, ces technologies constituent
parfois une menace pour la démocratie. La raison sous-jacente est
qu’aujourd’hui, les responsables des campagnes politiques utilisaient des big
data et des algorithmes d’IA pour manipuler et/ou persuader les gens en
diffusion du ‘contenus faux’. Le but de cette étude, en effectuant une analyse
descriptive d’événements historiques très récents, tels que l’échec de
Microsoft AI Tay et les effets de Youtube sur l’élection présidentielle au
Brésil, est de définir les menaces numériques très actuelles à la démocratie.
De plus, pour mieux décrire et discuter 
ces menaces numériques, nous avons réalisé des entretiens
semi-structurés avec quatre experts travaillant sur les algorithmes d'IA, le
big data et l'ingénierie sociale. Nos analyses et résultats tirés d'entretiens
semi-structurés ont montré qu'il existe plusieurs menaces numériques dans l'ère
post-vérité, telles que l'ingénierie sociale, la violation de la
confidentialité des données et l'utilisation abusive de big data, des
algorithmes de moteur de recherche personnalisés qui créent des bulles de
filtre, et la facilité de production et la diffusion de faux contenu.

References

  • Amer, K. & Noujaim, J. (2019). The Great Hack. [Documentary Movie]. United States: Netflix.
  • Bartlett, J. (2018). The People vs. Tech. How the internet is killing the democracy (and how we save it). London: Penguin.
  • Bauman, Z. & Lyon, D. (2013). Liquid Surveillance. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. ISBN: 978-0-7456-6402-6
  • Binark, M. (2017). Algoritmaların Yarattığı Yankı Odaları ve Siyasal Katılım Olanağı veya Olanaksızlığı. Varlık Dergisi, 1317, 19-23.
  • Berghel, H. (2018). Malice Domestic: The Cambridge Analytica Dystopia. Computer, 51(5), 84-89. doi: 10.1109/MC.2018.2381135
  • Bozdag, E. & van den Hoven, J. (2015). Breaking the filter bubble: democracy and design. Ethics and information technology, 17 (249). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10676-015-9380-y
  • Burns, Axel. (2017). Echo chamber? What echo chamber? Reviewing the evidence. 
6th Biennial Future of Journalism Conference (FOJ17). Cardiff, UK. Retrieved from https://eprints.qut.edu.au/113937/
  • Cadwalladr, C. & Graham-Harrison, E. (2018). Revealed: 50 million Facebook profiles harvested for Cambridge Analytica in major data breach. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/news/2018/mar/17/cambridge-analytica- facebook-influence-us-election
  • Cadwallar, C. (2018). The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/apr/10/facebook-notify-users-data-harvested-cambridge-analytica#img-1
  • Cadwalladr, C. (2017). The great British Brexit robbery: how our democracy was hijacked. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/may/07/the-great-british-brexit-robbery-hijacked-democracy
  • Chivers, T. (2019). What do we do about deepfake video?. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2019/jun/23/what-do- we-do-about-deepfake-video-ai-facebook
  • Culkin, J. M. (1967). A schoolman's guide to Marshall McLuhan. The Saturday Review, 51-53. Retrieved from http://www.unz.org/Pub/SaturdayRev- 1967mar18-00051
  • Edson C. Tandoc Jr., Zheng Wei Lim & Richard Ling. (2018). Defining “Fake News”. Digital Journalism, 6:2,137-153, doi:10.1080/21670811.2017.1360143
  • Erbaysal Filibeli, T. & Şener, O. (in press). Manipüle Edilmiş Bir Enformasyonel Vitrin ve Popülist bir Enformasyon Alanı olarak Twitter, Moment Dergi.
  • Fisher, M. & Taub, A. (2019).How YouTube Radicalized Brazil. The NewYork Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/11/world/americas/youtube-brazil.html
  • Flood, A. (2006). ‘Post-truth’ named word of the year by Oxford Dictionaries. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/nov/15/post-truth-named-word-of-the-year-by-oxford-dictionaries
  • Haim, M., Graefe, A. & Brosius H. B. (2018) Burst of the Filter Bubble? Effects of personalization on the diversity of Google News. Digital Journalism, 6(3), 330-343, doi: 10.1080/21670811.2017.1338145
  • Herman, E. S. & Noam, C. (2008). Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of Mass Media. London: The Bodley Head.
  • Happer, C., Hoskins, A. & Merrin, W. (2019). Weaponizing reality: an introduction to Trump’s war on the media. In Happer, C., Hoskins, A. & Merrin, W. (Eds), (2019). Trump’s Media War (pp.3-22). Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Hunt, E. (2016, March 24). Tay, Microsoft's AI chatbot, gets a crash course in racism from Twitter. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/mar/24/tay-microsofts-ai- chatbot-gets-a-crash-course-in-racism-from-twitter
  • Keyes, R. (2004). The post-truth era. New York: St. Martin’s Press. ISBN: 0312306482
  • Krombholz, K., Hobel, H., Huber, M., & Weippl, E.R. (2015). Advanced social engineering attacks. J. Inf. Sec. Appl., 22, 113-122.
  • Narin, B . (2018). Kişiselleştirilmiş Çevrimiçi Haber Akışının Yankı Odası Etkisi, Filtre Balonu ve Siberbalkanizasyon Kavramları Çerçevesinde İncelenmesi. Selçuk Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Akademik Dergisi, 11 (2), 232-251. DOI: 10.18094/josc.340471
  • Metz, C. & Blumenthal, S. (2019). How A.I. could be weaponized to spread disinformation. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/06/07/technology/ai-text- disinformation.html
  • Molly, M. (2016, March 24). Microsoft 'deeply sorry' after AI becomes 'Hitler-loving sex robot'. The Telegraph. Retrieved from https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2016/03/26/microsoft-deeply-sorry- after-ai-becomes-hitler-loving-sex-robot/
  • Newman, N., Fletcher, R., Kalogeropoulos, A. & Nielsen, R. K. (2019) Reuters Institute Digital News Report. Retrieved from https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/sites/default/files/inline- files/DNR_2019_FINAL_27_08_2019.pdf
  • Pybus, J. (2019). Trump, the first Facebook president: why politicians need data too. In Happer, C., Hoskins, A. & Merrin, W. (Eds), (2019). Trump’s Media War (pp.227-240). Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Rampling, J. (2017). Secrets of Silicon Valley: The Persuasion Machine. [Documentary Movie]. UK: BBC.
  • Sample, I. (2014). The Guardian. How computer-generated fake papers flooding academia. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/technology/shortcuts/2014/feb/26/how- computer-generated-fake-papers-flooding-academia
  • Schönberger, V. M. & Cukier K. (2013) “Big Data: A Revolution That Will Transform How We Live, Work, and Think.” Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-544-00269-2
  • Sunstein, Cass R. 2009. Republic.com 2.0. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
  • Schwartz, O. (2019). Could ‘fake text’ be the next global political threat? The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2019/jul/04/ai-fake-text-gpt-2- concerns-false-information
  • Sich, A., Bullock, J. & Roberts, S. (2018). What is the Cambridge Analytica Scandal? The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/news/video/2018/mar/19/everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-cambridge-analytica-expose-video-explainer
  • Wakefield, J. (2016, March 24). Microsoft chatbot is taught to swear on Twitter. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-35890188
  • Pariser, Eli. (2011). The filter bubble: What the internet is hiding from you? New York: Penguin Press.
  • Parkin, S. (2019). The rise of the deepfake and the threat to democracy. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/technology/ng-interactive/2019/jun/22/the-rise-of-the-deepfake-and-the-threat-to- democracy
  • Thurman, Neil. 2011. “Making ‘the Daily Me’: Technology, Economics, and Habit in the Mainstream Assimilation of Personalized News.” Journalism 12 (4): 395–415. doi:10.1177/1464884910388228.
  • Tufekci, Z. (2014). Engineering the public: Big data, surveillance and computational politics. First Monday, 19(7). doi:https://doi.org/10.5210/fm.v19i7.4901
  • Borgesius, Z., Trilling, D., Moeller, J., Bodó, B., de Vreese, C. H. & Helberger, N. (2016). Should We Worry About Filter Bubbles? Internet Policy Review. Journal on Internet Regulation. 5(1). Retrieved from https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2758126
  • Facebook'taki veri skandalı, Türkiye'de 234 bin kişiyi etkiledi. (2018, April 6). T24. Retrieved from https://t24.com.tr/haber/facebooktaki-veri-skandali-turkiyede- 234-bin-kisiyi-etkiledi,599408
  • How is fake news spread? Bots, people like you, trolls, and microtargeting. (n.d.) Retrieved from https://www.cits.ucsb.edu/fake-news/spread

Big Data, Artificial Intelligence, and Machine Learning Algorithms: A Descriptive Analysis of the Digital Threats in the Post-truth Era

Year 2019, Issue: 31, 91 - 110, 28.12.2019
https://doi.org/10.16878/gsuilet.626260

Abstract

Did
the utilization of big data change everything about how information circulates?
Our digital data have been kept in big warehouses that we name ‘big data’. All
the things that we do in virtual life leave a digital footprint and thanks to
machine learning algorithms; in our newsfeed, we mostly face contents, which
are similar to the subjects that we looked for before. Big data are being used
for manipulating people to buy new products, to travel to new places, to read
new books, etc. However, as it emerged in 2016 with Cambridge Analytica Scandal
of Facebook, sometimes those technologies construct a threat for democracy. The
underlying reason is that in our days, big data and AI algorithms have been
used by political campaign managers to manipulate and/or persuade people
through diffusion of promoted ‘false’ contents. The aim of this study, by doing
a descriptive analysis of very recent historical events like the failure of
Microsoft’s AI Tay and Youtube’s effects on the presidential election in
Brazil, is to define very current digital threats against democracy.
Additionally, to better describe and discuss these digital threats we did
semi-structured interviews with four experts who work on AI algorithms, big
data, and social engineering. Our analyses and findings that we gathered from
semi-structured interviews showed that there are several digital threats in the
post-truth era that we live in like digital manipulation, violation of data
privacy and misuse of big data, personalized search engine algorithms that
create filter bubbles, the ease of production and diffusion of fake contents.

References

  • Amer, K. & Noujaim, J. (2019). The Great Hack. [Documentary Movie]. United States: Netflix.
  • Bartlett, J. (2018). The People vs. Tech. How the internet is killing the democracy (and how we save it). London: Penguin.
  • Bauman, Z. & Lyon, D. (2013). Liquid Surveillance. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. ISBN: 978-0-7456-6402-6
  • Binark, M. (2017). Algoritmaların Yarattığı Yankı Odaları ve Siyasal Katılım Olanağı veya Olanaksızlığı. Varlık Dergisi, 1317, 19-23.
  • Berghel, H. (2018). Malice Domestic: The Cambridge Analytica Dystopia. Computer, 51(5), 84-89. doi: 10.1109/MC.2018.2381135
  • Bozdag, E. & van den Hoven, J. (2015). Breaking the filter bubble: democracy and design. Ethics and information technology, 17 (249). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10676-015-9380-y
  • Burns, Axel. (2017). Echo chamber? What echo chamber? Reviewing the evidence. 
6th Biennial Future of Journalism Conference (FOJ17). Cardiff, UK. Retrieved from https://eprints.qut.edu.au/113937/
  • Cadwalladr, C. & Graham-Harrison, E. (2018). Revealed: 50 million Facebook profiles harvested for Cambridge Analytica in major data breach. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/news/2018/mar/17/cambridge-analytica- facebook-influence-us-election
  • Cadwallar, C. (2018). The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/apr/10/facebook-notify-users-data-harvested-cambridge-analytica#img-1
  • Cadwalladr, C. (2017). The great British Brexit robbery: how our democracy was hijacked. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/may/07/the-great-british-brexit-robbery-hijacked-democracy
  • Chivers, T. (2019). What do we do about deepfake video?. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2019/jun/23/what-do- we-do-about-deepfake-video-ai-facebook
  • Culkin, J. M. (1967). A schoolman's guide to Marshall McLuhan. The Saturday Review, 51-53. Retrieved from http://www.unz.org/Pub/SaturdayRev- 1967mar18-00051
  • Edson C. Tandoc Jr., Zheng Wei Lim & Richard Ling. (2018). Defining “Fake News”. Digital Journalism, 6:2,137-153, doi:10.1080/21670811.2017.1360143
  • Erbaysal Filibeli, T. & Şener, O. (in press). Manipüle Edilmiş Bir Enformasyonel Vitrin ve Popülist bir Enformasyon Alanı olarak Twitter, Moment Dergi.
  • Fisher, M. & Taub, A. (2019).How YouTube Radicalized Brazil. The NewYork Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/11/world/americas/youtube-brazil.html
  • Flood, A. (2006). ‘Post-truth’ named word of the year by Oxford Dictionaries. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/nov/15/post-truth-named-word-of-the-year-by-oxford-dictionaries
  • Haim, M., Graefe, A. & Brosius H. B. (2018) Burst of the Filter Bubble? Effects of personalization on the diversity of Google News. Digital Journalism, 6(3), 330-343, doi: 10.1080/21670811.2017.1338145
  • Herman, E. S. & Noam, C. (2008). Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of Mass Media. London: The Bodley Head.
  • Happer, C., Hoskins, A. & Merrin, W. (2019). Weaponizing reality: an introduction to Trump’s war on the media. In Happer, C., Hoskins, A. & Merrin, W. (Eds), (2019). Trump’s Media War (pp.3-22). Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Hunt, E. (2016, March 24). Tay, Microsoft's AI chatbot, gets a crash course in racism from Twitter. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/mar/24/tay-microsofts-ai- chatbot-gets-a-crash-course-in-racism-from-twitter
  • Keyes, R. (2004). The post-truth era. New York: St. Martin’s Press. ISBN: 0312306482
  • Krombholz, K., Hobel, H., Huber, M., & Weippl, E.R. (2015). Advanced social engineering attacks. J. Inf. Sec. Appl., 22, 113-122.
  • Narin, B . (2018). Kişiselleştirilmiş Çevrimiçi Haber Akışının Yankı Odası Etkisi, Filtre Balonu ve Siberbalkanizasyon Kavramları Çerçevesinde İncelenmesi. Selçuk Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Akademik Dergisi, 11 (2), 232-251. DOI: 10.18094/josc.340471
  • Metz, C. & Blumenthal, S. (2019). How A.I. could be weaponized to spread disinformation. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/06/07/technology/ai-text- disinformation.html
  • Molly, M. (2016, March 24). Microsoft 'deeply sorry' after AI becomes 'Hitler-loving sex robot'. The Telegraph. Retrieved from https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2016/03/26/microsoft-deeply-sorry- after-ai-becomes-hitler-loving-sex-robot/
  • Newman, N., Fletcher, R., Kalogeropoulos, A. & Nielsen, R. K. (2019) Reuters Institute Digital News Report. Retrieved from https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/sites/default/files/inline- files/DNR_2019_FINAL_27_08_2019.pdf
  • Pybus, J. (2019). Trump, the first Facebook president: why politicians need data too. In Happer, C., Hoskins, A. & Merrin, W. (Eds), (2019). Trump’s Media War (pp.227-240). Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Rampling, J. (2017). Secrets of Silicon Valley: The Persuasion Machine. [Documentary Movie]. UK: BBC.
  • Sample, I. (2014). The Guardian. How computer-generated fake papers flooding academia. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/technology/shortcuts/2014/feb/26/how- computer-generated-fake-papers-flooding-academia
  • Schönberger, V. M. & Cukier K. (2013) “Big Data: A Revolution That Will Transform How We Live, Work, and Think.” Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-544-00269-2
  • Sunstein, Cass R. 2009. Republic.com 2.0. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
  • Schwartz, O. (2019). Could ‘fake text’ be the next global political threat? The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2019/jul/04/ai-fake-text-gpt-2- concerns-false-information
  • Sich, A., Bullock, J. & Roberts, S. (2018). What is the Cambridge Analytica Scandal? The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/news/video/2018/mar/19/everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-cambridge-analytica-expose-video-explainer
  • Wakefield, J. (2016, March 24). Microsoft chatbot is taught to swear on Twitter. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-35890188
  • Pariser, Eli. (2011). The filter bubble: What the internet is hiding from you? New York: Penguin Press.
  • Parkin, S. (2019). The rise of the deepfake and the threat to democracy. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/technology/ng-interactive/2019/jun/22/the-rise-of-the-deepfake-and-the-threat-to- democracy
  • Thurman, Neil. 2011. “Making ‘the Daily Me’: Technology, Economics, and Habit in the Mainstream Assimilation of Personalized News.” Journalism 12 (4): 395–415. doi:10.1177/1464884910388228.
  • Tufekci, Z. (2014). Engineering the public: Big data, surveillance and computational politics. First Monday, 19(7). doi:https://doi.org/10.5210/fm.v19i7.4901
  • Borgesius, Z., Trilling, D., Moeller, J., Bodó, B., de Vreese, C. H. & Helberger, N. (2016). Should We Worry About Filter Bubbles? Internet Policy Review. Journal on Internet Regulation. 5(1). Retrieved from https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2758126
  • Facebook'taki veri skandalı, Türkiye'de 234 bin kişiyi etkiledi. (2018, April 6). T24. Retrieved from https://t24.com.tr/haber/facebooktaki-veri-skandali-turkiyede- 234-bin-kisiyi-etkiledi,599408
  • How is fake news spread? Bots, people like you, trolls, and microtargeting. (n.d.) Retrieved from https://www.cits.ucsb.edu/fake-news/spread

Büyük Veri, Yapay Zeka ve Makina Öğrenimi Algoritmalar: Hakikat Ötesi Çağda Dijital Tehditlerin Betimleyici bir Analizi

Year 2019, Issue: 31, 91 - 110, 28.12.2019
https://doi.org/10.16878/gsuilet.626260

Abstract

Büyük verinin kullanımı, bilginin dolaşımına dair her
şeyi değiştirdi mi? Dijital verilerimiz “büyük veri” adını verdiğimiz büyük
depolarda saklanıyor. Sanal hayatta yaptığımız her şey dijital bir ayak izi
bırakıyor ve makine öğrenimi algoritmalar sayesinde; haber akışımızda
çoğunlukla daha önce aradığımız konulara benzer içeriklerle karşılaşıyoruz.
Temel olarak büyük veriler, insanları yeni ürünler almaya, yeni yerlere seyahat
etmeye, yeni kitaplar okumaya vb. yönlendirmek için kullanılıyor. Bununla
birlikte, 2016'da ilk kez Facebook’un Cambridge Analytica Skandalı ile ortaya
çıktığı üzere, bazen bu teknolojiler demokrasi için bir tehdit oluşturmaktadır.
Bunun nedeni günümüzde, büyük veri ve yapay zeka algoritmaları politik kampanya
yöneticileri tarafından promosyonlu yanlış içeriklerin dolaşıma sokulması
yoluyla insanları manipüle etmek ve/veya ikna etmek amacıyla kullanılmaktadır.
Bu çalışmada, Microsoft’un yapay zekası Tay’in başarısızlığı ve Youtube’un
Brezilya’daki cumhurbaşkanlığı seçimleri üzerindeki etkisi gibi son zamanlardaki
tarihi olayların tanımlayıcı bir analizini yaparak, demokrasiye karşı ortaya
çıkan güncel dijital tehditleri tanımladık. Bunun yanı sıra, bu dijital
tehditleri daha iyi tanımlamak ve tartışmak için yapay zeka temelli
algoritmalar, büyük veri ve sosyal mühendislik üzerine çalışan dört uzmanla
yarı-yapılandırılmış görüşmeler gerçekleştirildi. Yapmış olduğumuz analizler ve
yarı yapılandırılmış görüşmelerden elde etmiş olduğumuz bulgular, içinde
yaşadığımız hakikat ötesi çağda sosyal mühendislik, veri gizliliğinin ihlali,
filtre baloncukları yaratan kişiselleştirilmiş arama motoru algoritmaları,
doğru olmayan içeriklerin üretiminin ve dolaşıma sokulmasının kolaylaşması gibi
birçok dijital tehdit bulunduğunu göstermiştir.

References

  • Amer, K. & Noujaim, J. (2019). The Great Hack. [Documentary Movie]. United States: Netflix.
  • Bartlett, J. (2018). The People vs. Tech. How the internet is killing the democracy (and how we save it). London: Penguin.
  • Bauman, Z. & Lyon, D. (2013). Liquid Surveillance. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. ISBN: 978-0-7456-6402-6
  • Binark, M. (2017). Algoritmaların Yarattığı Yankı Odaları ve Siyasal Katılım Olanağı veya Olanaksızlığı. Varlık Dergisi, 1317, 19-23.
  • Berghel, H. (2018). Malice Domestic: The Cambridge Analytica Dystopia. Computer, 51(5), 84-89. doi: 10.1109/MC.2018.2381135
  • Bozdag, E. & van den Hoven, J. (2015). Breaking the filter bubble: democracy and design. Ethics and information technology, 17 (249). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10676-015-9380-y
  • Burns, Axel. (2017). Echo chamber? What echo chamber? Reviewing the evidence. 
6th Biennial Future of Journalism Conference (FOJ17). Cardiff, UK. Retrieved from https://eprints.qut.edu.au/113937/
  • Cadwalladr, C. & Graham-Harrison, E. (2018). Revealed: 50 million Facebook profiles harvested for Cambridge Analytica in major data breach. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/news/2018/mar/17/cambridge-analytica- facebook-influence-us-election
  • Cadwallar, C. (2018). The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/apr/10/facebook-notify-users-data-harvested-cambridge-analytica#img-1
  • Cadwalladr, C. (2017). The great British Brexit robbery: how our democracy was hijacked. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/may/07/the-great-british-brexit-robbery-hijacked-democracy
  • Chivers, T. (2019). What do we do about deepfake video?. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2019/jun/23/what-do- we-do-about-deepfake-video-ai-facebook
  • Culkin, J. M. (1967). A schoolman's guide to Marshall McLuhan. The Saturday Review, 51-53. Retrieved from http://www.unz.org/Pub/SaturdayRev- 1967mar18-00051
  • Edson C. Tandoc Jr., Zheng Wei Lim & Richard Ling. (2018). Defining “Fake News”. Digital Journalism, 6:2,137-153, doi:10.1080/21670811.2017.1360143
  • Erbaysal Filibeli, T. & Şener, O. (in press). Manipüle Edilmiş Bir Enformasyonel Vitrin ve Popülist bir Enformasyon Alanı olarak Twitter, Moment Dergi.
  • Fisher, M. & Taub, A. (2019).How YouTube Radicalized Brazil. The NewYork Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/11/world/americas/youtube-brazil.html
  • Flood, A. (2006). ‘Post-truth’ named word of the year by Oxford Dictionaries. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/nov/15/post-truth-named-word-of-the-year-by-oxford-dictionaries
  • Haim, M., Graefe, A. & Brosius H. B. (2018) Burst of the Filter Bubble? Effects of personalization on the diversity of Google News. Digital Journalism, 6(3), 330-343, doi: 10.1080/21670811.2017.1338145
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There are 41 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Journal Section Articles
Authors

Tirse Filibeli 0000-0003-4642-2279

Publication Date December 28, 2019
Acceptance Date December 5, 2019
Published in Issue Year 2019Issue: 31

Cite

APA Filibeli, T. (2019). Big Data, Artificial Intelligence, and Machine Learning Algorithms: A Descriptive Analysis of the Digital Threats in the Post-truth Era. Galatasaray Üniversitesi İletişim Dergisi(31), 91-110. https://doi.org/10.16878/gsuilet.626260

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